The Two Sounds of G

The Two Sounds of G The Two Sounds of G The Two Sounds of G By Maeve Maddox In Old English, the letter g represented four sounds. (Check out the etymological note in the OED for details.) I shall limit my remarks to the two sounds of g in modern English. Unlike the letter c, which is an alternate spelling for the sounds of k and s and has no sound of its own, the letter g does have one sound of its own: the â€Å"hard† sound heard in glove. The second sound of g, the â€Å"soft† sound heard in giant, represents the sound that belongs to the letter j [j]. ESL learners often ask if there’s a rule for knowing when the g represents the â€Å"hard† sound and when the â€Å"soft† sound. There are guidelines that help, but not all words conform to the guidelines. NOTE: In mastering English spelling, the sensible approach is to learn the general rules and then, using them as a point of reference, learn the exceptions. General Rules If the g is followed by e, i, or y, the pronunciation is â€Å"soft g: g+i: magic, margin, origin, engine g+e: page, generation, detergent, vengeance g+y: astrology Egyptian gym If the g is followed by any other letter (than e, i, y), the pronunciation is â€Å"hard g: gazebo glove gaze go grab gum If the g comes at the end of a word, the pronunciation is â€Å"hard g: pig mug wig zigzag jug Sometimes a u follows a g in order to keep it from bumping up against an i or an e: guess guest guild guile guilt Exceptions to the e, i, y Rule Hebrew names: Gideon, Gilead Words of Germanic origin: give, gift, get, gild, Gilbert, Gilda Scottish names: Gilchrist, Gillespie, Gilroy Gynecology Most English words that derive from the Greek word for woman [gyne] follow the rule for g followed by y and are pronounced with a â€Å"soft g, for example, misogynist: one who hates or is ill-disposed to women polygyny: a form of polygamy, marriage of a man to more than one woman at a time androgynous – having both male and female characteristics When the word gynaecology to describe the department of medical science that treats of the functions and diseases of women was coined in the19th century, it was pronounced with a â€Å"soft g. Some speakers still pronounce it that way, although the hard g has become the most common pronunciation in both British and American English. (The American spelling is gynecology) Related post: Womanly Words–Gyn Want to improve your English in five minutes a day? Get a subscription and start receiving our writing tips and exercises daily! Keep learning! Browse the Spelling category, check our popular posts, or choose a related post below:7 Types of Narrative ConflictDawned vs. Donned30 Nautical Expressions

English Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words - 19

English - Essay Example The people, who watch over her in this condition, are Jason Posner, who solely resorts his faith in being a doctor. Another person is, Susie Monahan, who is a nurse with a humanitarian approach, she is the only one in the entire hospital who really cares for Vivians deplorable state. Dr. Kelekian is the head doctor in the hospital, who is just interested in the results; it does not matter to him, what they are. The doctors counsel for an untried treatment of painful chemotherapy, and she agrees to it. Partially it is her own choice, but also her own personal states of affairs force her to act so, she comes to a decision to endure the agony of the treatment by herself. However, as her treatment develops, she desires that she really had some more actually gentle human interface from the people who treat her as a human being and not just an object of research trial. The tone of this theatre is grim, and quite unlike to the name, ‘Wit’ is not explicit here; but the play has many intelligent moment of humor in it. The story revolves around a question of life and death, but has a much more intricate humanitarian tone in it. The excellent background music of piano helps to understand the underlying tone of the story more deeply. Emma Thompson’s outstanding performance and Mike Nichols’ excellent direction made it more appealing to the spectators. This theatrical production Stage Beauty (2004), is based on 1660s Londons theatres production of Londons theatres. The plot turns around the established system of gender positions in the theatre production houses. It intends to modify these gender issues for everyones benefit. Ned Kynaston is a homosexual, cross-dressing artist who has been portraying on-stage female characters in several plays for many years, mainly the role of Desdemona in Othello. He also shares a close bonding with a certain male co-actor. Gradually, the long and

Group of Eight and Poverty in Africa Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Group of Eight and Poverty in Africa - Essay Example Questions of East-West economic relations, energy, and terrorism have also been of recurrent concern. From this initial foundation the summit agenda has broadened considerably to include microeconomic issues such as employment and the information highway, transnational issues such as the environment, crime and drugs, and a host of political-security issues ranging from human rights through regional security to arms control. According to UN estimates, poor countries need $45 per person per year in aid in order to have any chance of winning the fight against poverty and reaching the Millennium Development Goals. All four countries currently affected by the West Africa food crisis receive less than this. Mali receives $19 per head, Mauritania $20 and Burkina Faso $13. Africa's 48 countries have people who want for their children education, good health, security and opportunity. They want a voice, a chance to make a better life for them and respect for their human rights. It is a continent where even though some progress has been made, the fact remains that few, if any, of the Sub-Saharan African countries are likely to achieve the goal of reducing the proportion of those living in absolute poverty by half by 2015. Instead the number of the poor in the region is estimated to grow by 45 million over the next 12 years. The richest countries of the world, as represented by the G8, have a responsibility to help the poorest. This is not just charity, but a moral obligation. The world's wealthiest countries have emitted more than their fair share of greenhouse gases. Resultant floods, droughts and other climate change impacts continue to fall disproportionately on the world's poorest people and countries, many of which are in Africa. Finance Ministers from the Group of Eight industrialized nations have agreed to cancel at least $40 billion in debt owed by the world's 18 poorest nations (Cowell, 2005). Under the agreement, 18 countries - Benin, Bolivia, Burkina Faso, Ethiopia, Ghana, Guyana, Honduras, Madagascar, Mali, Mauritania, Mozambique, Nicaragua, Niger, Rwanda, Senegal, Tanzania, Uganda and Zambia, will receive immediate forgiveness for more than $40 billion they owe to the World Bank, African Development Bank and the International Monetary Fund (Blustein, 2005). The deal will save the initial 18 countries about $1.5 billion annually that they could use toward health care, education and poverty alleviation programs, according to British Chancellor of the Exchequer Gordon Brown. (New York Times, 2005). An additional nine African countries likely will qualify for debt forgiveness once they have satisfied IMF and World Bank requirements for good governance and sound economic policies. The agreement also requires G8 countries to compensate the World Bank and AFDB at a total cost of $16.7 billion, based on the payments the lenders would have received from the 18 countries between now and 2015. The debt-forgiveness cost to the IMF will be absorbed by the institution's already existing resources. The United States agreed to pay up to $1.75 billion to the lenders over the next decade, and the United Kingdom agreed to pay up to $960 million (New York Times, 2005). Germany will pay between $848 million and $1.2 billion to the World Bank an

The Moral Permissibility of Rendition Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

The Moral Permissibility of Rendition - Essay Example Renditions are swifter, more secretive, and more uncomplicated than legally permissible extraditions, which can be prolonged, indecisive, and politically laden (Garcia, 2010). President Bush, at a briefing in April 2005, was grilled about renditions and offered the following response (Garcia, 2010, 5): â€Å"We operate within the law and we send people to countries where they say they’re not going to torture the people.† Nevertheless, the reality is that the United States has repeatedly transported alleged terrorists to countries, such as Syria, Pakistan, Jordan, Egypt, and Saudi Arabia where charges of torture have been widespread. Many intelligence officers are very much knowledgeable of this and are aware of the decadent aspect of renditions but remain steadfast to the belief that these are a major instrument in the fight against terrorism (Olson, 2007). A contributory issue is whether it is moral to allow and to exploit intelligence recognized or thought of having b een extracted by an open state through torture. Or, more importantly, are renditions morally permissible? A legal consultant to the British administration stated that it was â€Å"not illegal to obtain and to use intelligence acquired by torture† (Olson, 2007, 70). ... In truth, it is questionable that it is the presence of an idealistic unconditional prohibition on torture that has pushed torture â€Å"beneath the radar screen of accountability, (Steiner, Alston, & Goodman, 2008, 250),† and that license to perform torture in extremely rare cases would, actually, discourage its use due to the raised degree of accountability. The unconditional ban on torture is undoubtedly one of the reasons that the United States exercises rendition, which comprises arresting, incarcerating, transferring, and interrogating alleged terrorists in countries where they cannot gain themselves the standard ban that work with regard to inhumane practices of interrogation (Steiner et al., 2008). The procedure of rendition is intolerable because it is completely unfettered, not because it is morally reprehensible. The rationale is moral necessity: critical information has to be obtained from offenders themselves. But the unconditional legal ban on torture hampers fre e and well thought-out debate on this issue. Above all, there is no proof that legalizing rendition will result in abuse of other rights where the requirements for the process are precisely defined. Moral arguments against rendition merely acquire some grip where there is proof that a process identical to that being suggested has reached outside its projected range of use after the process was legalized (Rosenbaum, 2005). According to Garcia (2010), the relevant aspects of the moral arguments for rendition are (1) the rationale for the process is benevolence; (2) it requires forfeiting a lesser motive of a particular individual to bestow a higher gain on another; (3) it is practically definite that the suspect holds the critical information; and (4)

An Election Algorithm In Distributed Systems Information Technology Essay

An Election Algorithm In Distributed Systems Information Technology Essay In our increasingly globalised, distributed computer systems have been changed several aspect of our life, especially parallel computing; these days commercial application provide the strength of the development of faster computer, which allow a large amount data in sophisticated way, for instances, economic and financial modelling, database, multimedia technology, and oil exploration. Parallel computing has the ability to solve larger problems, provide the attribute of concurrency, save time and money. Distributed systems architecture leads to a wider use of parallelism as future of computing sector; this evolution made possible to run software on concurrent process on multiple processors. One of the main issues in designing concurrent software is election algorithm. The issue of election algorithm is the very question the current paper seeks to answer. The importance of this issue leads to effectiveness enhancements by develop and design algorithm use a new technique. Therefore, the aims of this dissertation are design and develop this technique, also discuss the benefits of parallel computing. Rationale I have been used the computer and the internet for several of years, my concentration is networks with emphasis in distributed systems. Recently, the internet is vastly interconnected a variety number of computer networks in many different institutions, which make a huge motivation to be professional user; therefore, my MSc course at Oxford Brookes University is really brilliant opportunity for achieving this goal with deep information path for further research in software engineering and networks. In particularly distributed systems are one of the significantly growing on demand in this sector, as they used to accelerate the computational speed of the problem solving. Thus, one of the most fundamental problems in distributed systems is the leader failure, furthermore, it is spectacular to improve and enhance my C language programming. With all these changes in the area of computer industry, my goal to helps and assists for use the election algorithm in distributed systems with a new technique and software for solving the coordinator failure. During study of distributed systems with connecting of parallel computing, this was bring a new interested challenge to go more further in development and contribute to gain wide rang of knowledge, all of these will have prepared me for a future career in computer software engineering and broadened my perspective and enriched my life beyond my career aspiration. Preliminary Research (maybe) Objectives The objectives of this dissertation is to research and develop the theme of an election in distributed systems which allow a group of processes to elect one process to act as a coordinator when a failure happen. However, as well as to achieve this goal PVM (Parallel Virtual Machine) and improve the understanding of this environment as it will used as an environment message passing for this project, this facility provides send and receive data message between processes and support concurrent programming, moreover it is easy and simple to spawn a set of processes. One of the most significant advantages of PVM is provide unified framework within parallel programs like cluster, where is possible for a programmer to divide a block of data into tasks that can run concurrently by send and receive data to all processes. This paper will focus on how to produce an election algorithm use above idea. This environment will be written in C language, and there will be a main program (Master), in which the user can initialise and make the declaration for the main attribute of executed program; there are varieties of functions to send and receive all data types during the communication between programs. The second program called (Slave), this program will carryout the operation after receive the data from master program, then packet the result and send it back. Finally, a part from the objectives will be self skills specifically improve project planning, programming as well as project writing skills. Methods The research methods which used to achieve these objectives will be as the following: Research the Oxford Brookes library for books and documentation for the distributed systems and specially an election and agreement, the library has a lot of sources, the book Distributed Systems: Principle and Paradigms [7] has cover important information to achieve the goal of this project; also the book Distributed Systems: Concept and Design [1] the was a brilliant theory to cover the distributed systems. Another book was giving a complete list of function, examples, and explanation to be familiar with virtual environment [2]. On the other hand, research the Internet, which has a lot of useful materials and describing an election algorithm [3]. Study and evaluate some kinds of algorithms those help and develop the topology idea of the project to achieve my goal. Produce a solution design to meet the requirement of the problem, as well as developed which needed for every task and discussed the findings with my supervisor. Moreover, PVM message passing communication design which gives a right direct path for problem solving. Implement every task as a proposed design use PVM library written in C language. System run and testing will be done on Cluster of school of technology. Make a review and keep an arranging to complete writing of the final report. Testing (may) Resources This dissertation will be achieved by using a variety of resources of software and hardware, also some of information and documents sources that cover all the area of the research. Software The environment of code will be writing in C language, that it support concurrent computer and UNIX, as well as it is simple language to understand. Moreover, it is also support the software PVM (Parallel Virtual Machine). PVM is mainly designed for using by concurrent and heterogeneous environment; it is possible for providing a virtual view. There are many of useful websites like (http://www.netlib.org/pvm3/). Hardware The Cluster of Brookes School of Technology will be needed to implement the project, and all test and run steps will do on it. The cluster consists of 6 nodes with 1 main node ssh 161.73.146.51 connected as processors and run PVM which installed in every node. Information Sources and Experts Advice There are several of documentation belongs to PVM which can be found in the book of A Users Guide and Tutorial for Networked Parallel Computing as mentioned earlier, and websites [4]. Further more, the lectures of modules software technologies that have a good reference of covering the topic of distributed systems in general. Besides all of this my supervisor/tutor Chris Cox who gives useful advice and information as he is specialise in distributed systems programming. Schedule PERT Chart Gantt Chart Abstract The election algorithm code has been implemented according to the design decision made. It includes function to perform sending and receiving (communication channel) operations for group of functions to Acknowledgement I would like to take the opportunity to thank my supervisor Mr. Chris Cox who was always available to support when I missed up; I am deeply indebted for his constant help and advice. Since this push to more steps in my research, this reflects on the right direction to the target of finishing the dissertation. I want to thank my friend Abobaker Almowfeq for his encouragement and advice. Finally, I dedicated this thesis to my parents and thank them for the supporting throughout my MSc study in the UK. I am honoured to show my respects to them. They were my powerful source of energy. Contents Dissertation Plan Abstract Acknowledgement Introduction †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦ The Importance of Concurrent Programming The Need of Election in Distributed Systems Structure of this Document Research †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦. Election Algorithm Theory Description Bully Algorithm Ring Algorithm Method Introduction Design Stage The Core Algorithm Comments on the Algorithm Evolution of the Core Algorithm The Software Development C Language PVM Cluster Testing Failure Simulation Testing Function Conclusions Critical Appraisal of the Project Achievement Area of Future Improvement Work Schedule Review Lessons Learnt List of Abbreviation DDMS (Distributed Database Management System) MPI (Message Passing Interface) MPP (Massively Parallel Processing) PVM (Parallel Virtual Machine) SMP (Symmetric Multi Processing) List of Figures Chapter 1 Introduction The Importance of Concurrent Programming The past thirty years have seen increasingly rapid advances in the field of concurrent programming computing, a concurrent program is a set of sequential programs that can be executed in parallel [book of principles concurrent]. On the theme of distributed systems that enable the computers to coordinate their activities and share hardware, software, and data. The strategies characteristics of the systems which include shared state, multiple computers, and a processor that suited to a particular function to make the improvement for performance and utilization. As well as the concurrent computing have the availability of fault interconnections give the predominance over all the others. All of these offer several advantages: The cost of this computing can be low; each individual task assigned to appropriate architecture that lead to optimized performance. Network computing can be offer a computer task partitioning along of services functions. Another advantage, the computing networks ha ve the capability to execute subtasks of a computation on tolerance. Consequently, one of the major problems that distributed systems face is the failure; this problem can be solved by election algorithm for the agreement to only one node that distinguished and all other nodes aware of it. Thus this paper describes the design and producing an algorithm to achieve communication of parallel programming in virtual environment. The Need of Election in Distributed System Election process is a program distributed over all nodes. When the leader has failed and discovered by one or more nodes, then election starts. The leader election algorithms are used in many topologies. For example, in token ring and when the node that has token fails, a new node should be selected from the system to have the token. The leader election is also used to sole single point failure in client-server that is when the systems need to transfer the leadership to another station and the fail occurs. Many researches have studied the subject of leader election algorithms. The researches presented different techniques and strategies to deal with the election algorithm. The objective of this dissertation is to research the election algorithm in distributed systems and design and develop an election algorithm in distributed systems to choose and agreed with biggest identifier to be coordinator. The software systems PVM used as a library of design and development. Structure of this Documents This dissertation has structured and separated into three parts. The first part describes and discusses the research topic theory of the election algorithm in distributed systems, as provides some applications with description to show and investigate their use in the subject of election algorithm. The second part describes the methodology that adapted to accomplish this dissertation, as well as outline design of the core algorithm and development description which shows the dissertation deliverables. The final part outlines the conclusion with achievement of this project. Chapter 2 Research This section shows the research and development of the related investigation; and moreover, the works that have been done relating election algorithm. It covers the theory of distributed systems and the failure problems; this part was particularly important in the progress of understanding an election and the agreement in distributed systems; and gives a clear idea for design the core algorithm. The need for software technologies module lectures, specially distributed systems was deceive; there were brief description for some material and examples of programming code those were good point to start from for this dissertation. Election Algorithm Theory (in Distributed Systems As more and more, distributed systems have been rapidly changed the field of computer science. Distributed systems are application that executes a collection of autonomous network computers to coordinate and communicate their action. However, the major goal of distributed systems including the ability to connect remote users with remote resources in open scalable way; in other words give an easy way and simple way for the users and application to access remote resources, and sharing the facilities included by efficient/controlled way. Furthermore, the brilliant benefits of sharing resources are vary; the obvious one is economic, that is to say reduce the expenditure for institutions, such as Universities, and also the collaboration will be easier to connect users and resources. This characteristic is a direct as a result of having independent computer [7]. Description An election algorithm: Is an algorithm for solving the coordinator election problem which is choosing a unique process from among a group of processes on different processors to act as central coordinator in distributed system, that is to say a group of processes on different machines need to make agreement to choose a coordinator[7]. However, there is no way to choose/select one process, if all processes are exactly the same and there are no distinguishing characteristics. Accordingly, there requirement is for the choice of elected process to be unique; hence election algorithm attempt to locate process with highest process number and designate it as coordinator [7]. When a failure occurs, which means one or more node fails, or during a communication channel fails the subsystem that enables the nodes/processes to communicate; there is necessity for the nodes to start coordination agreement to elect node for new situation, therefore live nodes can continue working to fulfil their task [3]. Distributed systems have to be adaptable to failures at least by two strategies. The first strategy is a capability for operating continuously and correctly by have software when failures occur (using an algorithm). The other strategy is to take a period of time out to reorganize the system by temporarily halt operation (reorganization by coordinator) [3]. The election algorithms vary, for example: Wired system which are for instances. Bully Algorithm (the biggest guy in town wins) Ring Algorithm Wireless system Very large-scale system Bully Algorithm It is an election algorithm, in the paper of Election in a Distributed Computing Systems by Garcia-Molina [9]; this algorithm can handle process crashes and the presumptions are all processes have got unique identity, all other processes in the network are known by every process and the system is synchronous, that is, there is a maximal time limit T within a request and if the requested process P is alive the request will be answered. However, the algorithm defined as, when there is no responding to the requests from the coordinator, there will an initiating for an election. Therefore: The process P send an election-message to all processors with higher numbers than itself, then P waits for answer-message. The process P will itself elected (P win the election), if the answer-messages are not arrive with in the time T, after that sends a coordinator message to all processors a lower number. Process P will wait a further time period T a coordinator message, if there is one or more answer-message A process P receives an election message and returns the answer-message, then start the algorithm from the beginning if there is nothing have been done before. A process P receives the coordinator message register the senders number and considers it elected. The algorithm will be started , when faulty process restarts; if the process which was previously down comes back up, it holds an election and if happens to be the highest numbered process currently running, this will win the election and take over the job of coordinator. As a result of that the biggest process in all processes always wins; therefore the name is bully algorithm. Here an example of the election of coordinator P2 after the failure of P4 [3]. Election Coordinator Stage 1 Election P1 P4 P3 P2 Answer Election Coordinator Election P1 Stage 2 Election P4 Election P3 P2 Answer Stage 4 Stage 3 coordinator Time out P1 P2 P3 P4 P2 P1 P3 P4 Figure (Bully Algorithm) In this operation, four processes are shown when process P1 detect the failure of the coordinator P4, therefore it is announces an election in the stage 1; during the receiving an election-message from P1, processes P2 and P3 send answer-message to P1 and start their own elect-ion, then in the stage 2, P3 sends an answer-message to P2, for P3 has no answer-message received from P4 which is failed process. Consequently, it decides that it is the coordinator; moreover, in stage 3 P3 fails too before it can send out the coordinator-message. When the timeout period expires for P1, it deduces the absence of the coordinator-message and begins another election; eventually P2 is elected coordinator. Ring Algorithm An election which is suitable for a collection of processes based on the use of a ring; in the book Distributed Systems Concepts and design [1] chapter12 section 12.3 provides a good reference and explanation of the subject of coordination and agreement. However, the messages are sent clockwise around the ring, any process can begin an election initially, every process is marked as nonparticipant in an election, it proceeds by making itself as a participant, so when any process notices that the coordinator is not functioning, it builds an election-message placing its identifier in an election message and sending it to its clockwise neighbour, when an election-message is received by a process, it compare the identifier in the message with its own, the message will be forwarded if the arrived identifier is greater than a received process; whereas, if the arrived identifier is smaller and the receiver is not a participant, then it substitutes its own identifier in the message and forwards it, but if it is already a participant, it does not forward the message. In addition, if the received identifier is that of the receiver itself, thus this identifier must be the greatest, and it becomes the coordinator. Accordingly, the coordinator makes itself as a non-participant once more and sends an elected message to its neighbours announcing its election and enclosing its identity. As well as, if the neighbour process which is received the election message is down, the sender will skip over the neighbour and goes to the next member along the ring, or the one after that until a running process is located. P1 Adds 3 (2 ,3) P1 Coordinator P2 P4 P2 P4 P2 Elected P3 Elect P3 message (2,3) P3 Elect-P2 message (2) P3 Elect-P3 message (2,3) Stage 2 Stage 1 Coordinator = P3 Sends elected P3 (2,3) P1 P4 P2 Elected P3 message P3 receives the message P3 Stage 3 Figure (Ring Algorithm) Supposing P2 detects that coordinator P4 is not responding, thus P2 sets active-list to ( ) and sends elect-P2 message to P3, after P2 sets active-list to (2). However, P3 receives elect-P2 which is the first message has been seen, so P3 sets its active-list to(2,3); then P3 sends elect-P3 towards P4 and sends elect-P2 also respectively, the message will pass P4 and P1 due to their crash and reach P2, the process P2 adds 3 to active-list (2,3), then P2 forward elect-P3 to P3 and receives the elect-P2 message which leads to choose P3 from P2 as the highest processes in its-list (2,3) and sends an elected P3 message, finally P3 receives the elected-P3 and P3 choose P3 as the highest process in its-list. This is an example of process which consists of four processes and the assumption is P1 and P4 are crashed. Distributed Database systems Distributed database technology required to merging of two significant concepts, the integration via the element of database and distribution through the element of networking. Therefore, distributed database management system (DDBMS) provides the powerful tools for managing an integrated collection of shared data, and supply total solution to information processing problems within large organization. Furthermore, the reliability of the data communication facility will be takes into its possibility. However, distributed database require one process to be a unique as coordinator to perform some activities. The [5] provides a reference for using election to choose the coordinator as continuing for duty is required when the coordinator process fails. The election algorithm [6] of TEMPO that running on Berkeley gives another use of choosing a unique process to be coordinator. TEMPO is a distributed system program that adapted on master and slave techniques running on individual process. The reliable communication services for LAN which TEMPO works in and to be sure about its continuity, an election is necessary to elect a new master and should have the ability to perform: withstand the failure of process when the election begin, deal with network partitions, and collect information about the topology of the system by allowing a time daemon. Chapter 3 Method Introduction This chapter describes the design and implementation of the election algorithm. The main point of the design is the aspect which will be used and adapted in order to finish this project; therefore various assumptions and decisions are made to develop main algorithm. In the dissertation proposal report there was assumption idea about the algorithms to be used, but when some design concepts have reviewed and researched the algorithm that based on Bully Algorithm was adapted. All following section covers technical and practical explanation, as well as the process of the design which are made. Finally, testing process to shows the algorithm performance Design Stage The Problem Specification Design After finishing the necessary requirement and research, there were many possible idea gathered in order to produce the design, formulate a clear manner of main election algorithm, and how to achieve the efficient solution to the problem. The design of the communication must take into account the topology of the network, which will be (cluster); the algorithms presented here assume a fully connected topology. Furthermore, the assumption that communications are error free is an abstraction and the assumption of finite but arbitrary transit times for messages is consistent; the algorithm do not to be sensitive to change in the relative speeds of the channel and processors at the nodes, so the correctness will never depend on absolute times. For each node there will be a unique identification number, the message passing model is consistent with that provided with PVM (Parallel Virtual Machine). There are two statements for communication: Sending and receiving messages Send (MessageType, Destination [, Parameters]) Receive (MessageType [, Parameters]) For example below node 1 sends a message of type request to node 2 with two integer parameters values 13 and 27. integer k= 13 send (request, 2, k, 27) integer m, n receive (request, m, n) node 1 node 2 (Node communication) When the message is received at node 2, these values are transferred to the variable m and n declared at the node. The core Algorithm Architecture Discuss the algorithm process Send side: Receive side: The design of the algorithm will using fully connected, and it is extremely efficient in that any node can send a message directly to any other nodes, but it is extremely expensive because it needs more communication channel. This design allows process to crush during the election where there are three types of messages; an election message is sent to announce an election; an answer message is sent in response to an election message and coordinator message is sent to announce the identity of the elected process. The drawing below shows four nodes which containing the data structures, that is A node identity and the number chosen by each nod 13 elected message{1.2.3.4} node 1 elected message {1} {1,2,3,4} {1,2} {1,2,3,4} 22 7 node 4 node 2 elected message{1,2} elected message{1,2,3} 18 node 3 {1,2,3} Figure (Fully Communication Architecture) The assumption of the election start from node 1 and the message is send to all other nodes ; and every process marked as nonparticipant in an election, when node 1 initiates/builds the election message placing with it its identifier which is 13 in active list {1} and sends it to all nodes neighbour, when as election message is received by all nodes, they compare the identifier in the message (13) with their own, consequently node 2 sends reply message to all nodes, because other nodes have lower identifier than it does. On another hand, node 4 does not send any reply message, instead adding all other nodes to its active list; also node 3 sends reply to both node 1 and node 4 but not for node 2; node 1 will reply message only to node 4 due to that the identifier number of node 1 is bigger than node 4. When node 2 sends reply message with its identifier which is the highest one to all nodes, its regarded as coordinator election message, and it will wait a period of time, then if it does not receive any reply from the nodes, thus it sends a message to all other nodes declare itself as coordinator. Node status is normal except while the node is in the process of joining a new group. Each node that is not the leader of a group call to checks whether the leader of its group is still alive, by sending a message to the leader and waiting for a reply. If the node does not receive a reply within the timeout period, the node invokes a recovery procedure. Each leader i call a check procedure, which sends message to every other node asking whether that node is a leader. If one or more other nodes reply that it is a leader, node i pauses for a time inversely proportional to its priority (this helps prevent multiple nodes from initiating elections concurrently) and then calls a merge procedure. The merge procedure sends message to all of other leaders, inviting them to join a new group with the inviting node as leader. When the leader i receives an invitation, it forwards the invitation to the other members of its group. A node i that receives an invitation (directly or indirectly), sends an accept message to the proposed leader of the group. If node I receives a reply to its accept message within some time-out period, then node i joins the new group, otherwise, node i calls the recovery procedure. If two nodes are in the same group, then they have the same leader at all times, for all operational node i and j, if status i = normal and status j = normal. Reliable Broadcast To ensure essentially that all correct processes deliver the same message, and that messages broadcast by correct processes are delivered. Furthermore, it ensures that no different messages with the same identifier are delivered. The consideration that, the reliable broadcast is executed by function broadcast (message) as the following: Reliable broadcast1 Validity: If a correct process broadcast message M, then some correct processes eventually deliver M. Reliable broadcast2 Agreement: If a correct process delivers a message M, then some correct processes eventually deliver M. Reliable broadcast3 Integrity: For any identifier ID, every correct process p delivers at most one message M with identifier ID, and if sender (M) is correct then M was previously broadcast by sender (M). The election message will use the flag, so the flag is used by application to inform which node is alive or dead, and below there is some assumption for that Comments on the core Algorithm First of all, the design in these algorithms have been influenced by Because the sender It long words here Amer Evolution on the core Algorithm Software Development When the choice of the design has made, and finishing the messages passing communication mechanism for the election algorithm. Furthermore, after final manner for the communication topology has chosen and proved , some technical and technology materials are required to reach the goal of this dissertation, like which kind of library and hardware to be used to implement, run and test the algorithm, also which language to be easy for the programming. Thus, the following sections discuss these issues. The C Language The simplicity of C language to learn, understand, and the advantage of its widely spread led me to make the choice to be adapted it as a programming language for the code of this project. Moreover, it is origin as the language of UNIX operating systems. This also gives more advantage as PVM library written in C, so it specifies a standard library with an extensive set of function that being powerful and efficient language. It is support low level of both applications the distributed and the network one. The Cluster Computers A computer cluster is a set of connected or linked computers that working close to each other through high speed local area networks to form a single computer. A cluster at least has two computer that called nodes, one master which typically has a job scheduler that arrange the work to slave

Early Western Civilization in the 18th century :: European History

Early western civilization just following the feudal period was a very interesting time in Europe. There were many new innovations and problems in the way of life of the people of that time. Agriculture was still the main occupation of the time for most people. Two big problems that the people faced were those of war and poor harvest. It was said that perhaps the largest problem was the problem with poor grain. For the majority of people there was also the problem of land. For these people they either had no land of their own or insufficient amounts of it to support a family even when times were good. Poor harvests also had an effect on government as well. Bad harvests tended to cause the taxes to fall and couldn’t provide sufficient provisions for the army. One thing that did seem certain, however, was that monarchs didn’t help much with their pursuits of glory by means of war and food consumption. Serfs were the main labor forces in the feudal period. However in the â€Å"legal† sense there were really no serfs in Germany. That could be why the freeing of the serfs made minimal progress in Germany. The state needed the flourishing peasants for recruits for the army and for their houses and barns for lodging for the soldiers. For the peasants there were really no luxuries in their lives. They had little furniture and clothing and basically survived on what they or their neighbors could grow. Also what little money they had could only have been spent on items that they could not be dispensed with. Most of their dwellings were also not as clean as those of other areas since the women worked more in the fields. The schools for the common people were very poor. Most of the teachers were not competent enough to teach, the school houses were in disrepair, often the teachers would have to live in the school houses, there were often no separate classes, and the curricu lum was extremely narrow. Transportation was also a big issue of that time. Things moved very slowly at this time, especially goods. Canals and achievements in roads only provided moderate improvements. The real â€Å"Revolution† in transportation did not come until the invention of the railroad. The busiest and most used roads of the time were the footpaths, mule path and local roads of which the best credited to the Romans.

Market Revolution

The worldwide presence of the United States of America in terms of a gigantic political and economic power, as we see it today, is a result of the creative and relentless efforts of many political geniuses. After the War of Independence, the country was thrown in a state of depression and the late 17th century era marked a period of instability. The country had war debt of millions of dollars, negative speculation for foreign investment was inevitable, the army was negligible, the navy fleet was almost non-existent, relationship with England had severed and the Congress was unable to impose taxes until a proper law and order system was in place. Heavy adjustments to the political and economic regulations were required to drive the country out of the financial crisis. It were only through the relentless vision and efforts of Alexander Hamilton, the First Secretary of Treasury and Thomas Jefferson, the First Secretary of State, that a new political and economic ideal for the country was created and later, a stage was set for   full scale development of the American society and economic growth to all parts of the world. Similar article: Rise of Political Parties in the 1790s In a revolutionary era marked by political battles and public discord, these symbolic figures provided different, yet talismanic views of the power of government and enterprise in shaping the political and economic orders of the country that has enabled the rulers of the future to legitimatize their decisions for sustainable development. 2. THE FEDERALIST APPROACH: ALEXANDER HAMILTON Hamilton believed that the revival of the economy and subsequent growth depended on the creation of a strong central government that was increasingly proactive in the affairs of the country. He believed that a central, energetic government will not only be able to supersede the powers of the individual states in order to provide national stability but also provide a common framework for effective development and unionization of the big country. He denied the notion of self-interest, which he believed was prevalent in the political structure and destructive for the nation. His philosophy of centralizing the national economy was a product of his political stance. Hamilton believed that a structure of public credit facilities, immediate repayment of foreign debts and responsibility of states war debts, establishment of a new bank and protection of young industries were essential to promote business and develop competitive industries. Public credit facilities were to be financed through issuing government securities like bonds which can be used to settle the domestic debt and extended towards the industrial and manufacturing sector. The government should take over the responsibility of the debt incurred by the individual states during the war since the war was fought for the independence of the entire nation and â€Å"A national debt attaches many citizens to the government who, by their numbers, wealth, and influence, contribute more perhaps to its preservation than a body of soldiers† (Finseth). A banking structure with diversified branches will help the national government to carry out its basic functions like collecting taxes, financing debt and issue payments, issuing currency and generating income through interest on loans. A structure of no-tax for interstate commerce and protective tariff on imports will protect and promote national competition and young firms. Through his notion of a strong economic plan for a mechanized society, Thomas Hamilton gained support of a number of Congressmen and formed a Federalist Party in 1792. 3. THE REPUBLICAN APPROACH: THOMAS JEFFERSON In contrast to Hamilton’s view of an orderly mercantile economy, Thomas Jefferson advocated an agrarian economy, based on individual rights and a limited, decentralized government. He feared that the system proposed by his counterpart threatened the majority of the population who were agrarian laborers and resembled the British economic system. This would result in an emergence of tyranny against such a centralized rule. Jefferson compounded on a weak government structure because he believed that a proper government will not only restrict the liberty of individuals but also limit itself from creating individualism. He emphasized this concept in one of his political writings: â€Å"rightful liberty is unobstructed action according to our will within limits drawn around us by the equal rights of others. I do not add ‘within the limits of the law’, because law is often but the tyrant’s will, and always so when it violates the rights of the individual† (Appleby). Thomas Jefferson reject Hamilton’s proposal of setting up a national bank, fearing that such a bank would serve the rich at the expense of the poor people and emphasize federal powers over state powers. In response to the Federalist movement, Jefferson formed the Republican Party in 1792 along with James Madison to oppose the policies of the Federalists. 4.THE MARKET AND INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION The influences set forth by the two politicians shaped the constitution of the country and paved way for a rapid development of the economy from 1815 to 1860. In 1792, the king of France was overthrown and a republic was established. France attempted to extend its powers throughout Europe and Britain was trying to curtail it. This resulted in Napoleonic Wars, of which the United States was a major victim in terms of foreign relations. The victory of the Republican Party in 1800 resulted in the nomination of Thomas Jefferson as the third President of the United States. This event marked the first significant change in American politics. After the War of 1812, Jefferson realized that his vision of an agricultural market economy was incompetent with the competition in global markets. This led to the adoption of a policy of expansion and competition for power in the global economy. The Industrial revolution had begun in the 1700s in Europe and was marked by new inventions and efficient methods of production. This revolution spread to the United States and local inventors came up with unique ideas to mechanize the agriculture sector and spur new industries. Cotton gin was a notable invention which revolutionized the cotton industry by creating new industries, promoting inter-commerce relations between the West and the East and exports. Manufacturing of shoes, woolen clothing and machinery were also expanding. By 1860, almost a third of the country’s income came from the manufacturing sector. The concept of agrarian labor was transformed to that of a wage worker who was paid to run the automated machines in the factories. Most of the urbanized industries were located in the South, whereas the agricultural sector was primarily located in the South. Government provided social capital in the form of national roads, waterways and railroads. These initiatives enabled the nation to establish a firm base for rapid industrialization that followed. Financial industry diffused with new scheme through which some investors made wealth and others lost their savings. Protective tariffs were imposed to sustain the growing industries and bank branches were set up in every city. Rapid development also attracted a great deal of domestic and foreign investment. 5. CONSEQUENCES OF THE TRANSFORMATION The market and Industrial revolution had several consequences, including religion and reform, for the American Society in the eighteenth century. In the north, Evangelicalism or individual holiness, emerged in the new republic and was the â€Å"grand absorbing theme of American religious life† (Religion and the American Republic 7). Progressive and conservative religious forces often differed in terms of religious opinions with the former advocating a mass dedication to the materialism of the market society. Reformism, as a result was an opposing view to that of the individual revivals. Nevertheless, the underlying belief was that â€Å"religion was a necessary spring† for the government to operate efficiently and people believed in â€Å"a close association between Religion and Patriotism† (Religion and the American Republic 7). Societies and communities sprang up with a clear objective of devotion towards the removal of social evil and re-enlightenment of the individual soul as a result of the energy created from the evangelical movement. The six largest societies created during 1826-1827 were the American Education Society, the American Board of Foreign Missions, the American Bible Society, the American Sunday-School Union, the American Tract Society, and the American Home Missionary Society (Religion and the American Republic 7). WORKS CITED: 1.   United States History, The Formation of a National Government, Retrieved on Mar 10, 2006 from: http://countrystudies.us/united-states/ 2. Finseth, Ian. The Rise and fall of Alexander Hamilton, Retrieved on Mar 10, 2006 from: http://xroads.virginia.edu/~CAP/ham/hamilton.html 3. Religion and the Founding of the American Republic, Retrieved on Mar 10, 2006 from: Market Revolution The Market Revolution AP U. S. History The impact of the Market Revolution was the dawn of new markets in land, labor and produce. It ultimately changed American society and reflected a turn away from agrarian ideals through various changes in business, transportation, and society. Overall, the Market Revolution impacted the nation through different regions; the northeast became industrial, while the south relied on farming. The Northeast was booming in industrial growth from the Market Revolution.With the new textile mills, there were many jobs and the economy was on the rise. However, two of the biggest ways the Northeast was able to improve was with its improvements on transportation and various innovations. For example, in 1825 the Eerie Canal was created by Dewitt Clinton and set the stage for faster and easier transportation for goods and people. Also, with New York growing into one of the nation’s largest cities, there were various railroad networks that linked major ci ties. Lastly, the Northeast region was also improving with the creation of companies.For example, in 1813 Francis Cabot Lowell created the Boston Manufacturing company created the first large scale manufacturing cities in the United States of America (Lowell, Massachusetts). With this company, Lowell was also able to create 6,000 jobs by 1836. Because of these important improvements, the Market Revolution industrialized the Northeast and definitely set it apart in comparison to the Southwest region. While the Northeast was improving vastly on industrialization, the South was concentrated on their growth of farming.Even though, the South lagged in the growth of industrialization and urbanization, they had just as fast growth in their economy. It was Eli Whitney’s invention of the cotton gin that made slaves last longer and the production of cotton much faster. For example, cotton growth went from around 75,000 bales in 1800 to over 2 million bales in 1850 with the improvements on producing cotton. Because of the faster production of cotton, the South was able to export to Europe and the Northeast for an advantageous profit. Even though the South obviously had most of their growth due to cotton, they were still able to improve technologically wise.They did have factories and large ports and harbors. For example, the Mississippi transportation helped businesses export across the country with the advances of the steamboat. Thus, having a similar growth in transportation in comparison to the north. From 1815-1860, the Market Revolution was able to have growth in both the Northeast and the South regions and even though they had many differences, the regions were brought together with their booming economies. The large improvements in farming and industrialization were able to shape America into a powerful and wealthy country.